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Temporal psychological well-being (subjective well-being, future confidence and life satisfaction) is an important indicator of the level of mental health and well-being. During adolescence, the dynamic development of their psychological well-being is more susceptible to multiple factors. However, the trends and multidimensional influences on adolescents’ temporal psychological well-being, as well as their co-development with the relationship between interpersonal relationships and temporal psychological well-being, are not known. Therefore, 568 adolescents (Mage ± SD = 17.41 ± 1.14) aged 16 to 19 years were selected for this study using longitudinal data from the 2018, 2020, and 2022 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). Analyses were conducted using the latent growth curve model (LGCM). It was found that adolescents’ subjective well-being, future confidence, and life satisfaction showed a significant linear decline. Health status, academic pressure, and parent–child relationships were significantly associated with the initial level and developmental trajectory of temporal psychological well-being. In addition, we observed co-development patterns between interpersonal relationships and adolescents’ temporal psychological well-being, such that parallel changes in interpersonal relationships coincided with changes in well-being over time, and vice versa. This study reveals the dynamic patterns of changes in adolescents’ temporal psychological well-being and their co-development with relationships, providing empirical evidence for targeted interventions.